Promotion of Indigenous Food Preservation and Processing Knowledge and the Challenge of Food Security in Africa

Asogwa I.S.^1, , Okoye J.I¹ and Oni K¹

¹Department of Food Science and Technology, Enugu State University of Science and Technology, Enugu State, Nigeria

Cite this paper

Asogwa I.S., Okoye J.I and Oni K. Promotion of Indigenous Food Preservation and Processing Knowledge and the Challenge of Food Security in Africa. Journal of Food Security. 2017; 5(3):75-87. doi: 10.12691/JFS-5-3-3

Abstract

Africa is faced with dire food security challenge. Despite the fact that Africa remains the continent with greater arable land to feed it growing population and beyond, yet the continent remain the most impoverished in food security. Nearly 240 million people in sub-Saharan Africa lack adequate food for a healthy and active life. There is therefore an urgent need to look for more practical ways to tackle this challenge. One of such ways is the promotion and utilization of indigenous knowledge (IK) of food processing, preservation and storage. Africa is blessed with various types of food produce and also possesses diverse indigenous knowledge systems for their preservation and storage. Using of indigenous knowledge (IK) in solving food shortage therefore remains a powerful means of sustaining household food security. These indigenous methods of food preservation such as sun drying, fermentation, germination and soaking are time tested and has been used by locals over generation to preserve their produce after harvest thereby serving as a survival strategy. Simple, low-cost, traditional food processing techniques are also the bedrock of small-scale food processing enterprises that are crucial to rural development in Africa. Traditional/indigenous foods also provide inexpensive, safe, nutritious foods throughout the whole year thus boosting overall food security. Traditionally, long-term methods like fermentation and drying have been used for fruits and vegetables. They also provide an economic means of preserving food thus making it available during the period of scarcity. Unfortunately, despite these benefits, IK is fast eroding. Factors enhancing this gradual destruction include influence of western culture, changing socio-cultural status of women, lack of documentation, high illiteracy level among women. This review recommends that there is an urgent need to preserve and promote IK as a very important resource. All stakeholders must therefore be involved - governmental, and non-governmental bodies as well as the local people themselves. The inclusion of indigenous knowledge of food processing and preservation into any policy of program geared towards reduction of food insecurity will not only boost the peoples’ confidence on themselves but also in their ability to be part of the solutions to the challenges facing them, thus increasing the chances of success of such programs.

Keywords

indigenous knowledge, food security, food preservation, food processing, food storage

Copyright

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

References

[1]	Abba, E.J and Lovato, A , Effect of seed storage temperature and relative humidity on maize (Zea mays L.) seed viability and vigour. Seed Science and Technology. 27. 101-114. 1999.
[2]	Adesulu, A.T. and Awojobi, K.O, Enhancing sustainable development through indigenous fermented food products in Nigeria, Journal of Microbiology Research. 8(2). 1338-134. 2014.
[3]	Adeyemi, O.T. and Muhamad, N.O, Biochemical assessment of the chemical constituents of Aspergillus niger fermented Chrsophyllum seed meal. MSc Thesis. Dept of Biochemistry, University of Ilorin, Nigeria. 2008.
[4]	Afify, A.M.R., EL-Beltagi, H.S., Abd El-Salam, S.M. and Omran, A.A, Effect of soaking, cooking, germination and fermentation processing on proximate analysis and mineral content of three white sorghum varieties (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench). Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca. 40(2). 92-98. 2012.
[5]	Agea, J.G., Lugangwa, E., Obua, J. and Kambugu, R.K., Role of indigenous knowledge in enhancing household food security: A case study of Mukungwe, Masaka district, Central Uganda. Indilinga – African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems, 7(1). 65-71. 2008.
[6]	Akingbala, J.O., Oyewole, O. B., Uzo-Peters, P. I., Karim, R. O. and Bacuss-Taylor, G.S.H, Evaluating stored cassava quality in gari production. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment. 3. 75-80. 2005.
[7]	Akintonw, A.J., Tunwashe, O.; and Onifade, A, Fatal and non-fatal acute poisoning attributed to cassava-based meal. Acta Horticulturae. 375. 323-329. 1994.
[8]	Akinyele, I.O, Ensuring food and nutrition security in rural Nigeria. Available at http://www.ifpri.org/publication/ensuring-food-and-nutrition-security-rural-nigeria. 2009. (Retrieved 13th April 2017).
[9]	Akpapunam, M., and Sefa-Dedeh, A, Some physiological properties and antinutritional factors of raw, cooked and germinated Jack beans (Canavalia ensiformis). Food Chemistry. 59. 121-125.1997.
[10]	Akporhonor, E.E., Egwaikhide, P.A., and Eguavoen, I.O, Effect of Sprouting on invitro digestibility of some locally consumed leguminous seeds. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management. 10(3). 55-58. 2006.
[11]	Ari, M.M., Ayanwale, B.A., Adama, T.Z. and Olatunji, E.A, Effects of Different Fermentation Methods on the Proximate Composition, Amino Acid Profile and Some Antinutritional Factors (ANFs) In Soyabeans (Glycine Max). Fermentation Technology and Bioengineering. 2. 6-13. 2012.
[12]	Awojobi, B.F, Indigenous knowledge in potato utilization, processing and preservation. In Olakesusi, F. (Eds). Proceedings of Post Harvest Seminar. Ilorin: Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute. 1-127. 2004.
[13]	Aworh, O. C, The role of traditional food processing technologies in national development: The West African experience. In: Robertson, G. L. & Lupien, J. R. (Eds ), Using Food Science and Technology to Improve Nutrition and Promote National Development. International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST), 2008. http:/iufost.org/sites/default/files/docs/case_studies/chapter3_RobertsonLupien.pdfFAO. (Date accessed 16th April, 2017).
[14]	Awuor, A, Integrating Indigenous Knowledge for Food Security: Perspectives from the Millennium Village Project at Bar-Sauri in Nyanza Province in Kenya. In: The International Conference on Enhancing Food Security in the Eastern and Horn of Africa regions.. A Paper presented to the African Research and Resource Forum (ARRF) and the Economic Policy Research Centre (EPRC) for held Kampala, Uganda on 16-17, November 2011.
[15]	Ayernor, G .S, Analysis of Indigenous Post-harvest technologies on roots and tubers. FA0 Technical Document, Rome. 1-92. 1981.
[16]	Bau, H.M., Villaume, C, Nicolas, J.P, and Mejean, L, Effects of germination on chemical composition, biochemical constituents and antinutritional factors of soya bean seeds. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 73. 1-9. 1997.
[17]	Belton, P.S. and Taylor, J.R.N, Sorghum and millets: protein sources for Africa. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 15. 94-98. 2004.
[18]	Black, R.E., Allen, L.H, Bhutta, Z.A., Caulfield, L.E., de Onis, M., Ezzati, M., Mathers, C and Rivera, J, Maternal and child under nutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences. The Lancet. 371 (960). 243-260. 2008.
[19]	Brown, L, (2011). Women and food security; roles, constraints and missed opportunities. In: The role of food, agriculture, forestry and fisheries in human nutrition. Squires, V.R edunesco-eolss e-book. 2011. http://www.eolss.net/Eolss-sampleAllChapter.aspx (Date accessed 14th May, 2017).
[20]	Campbell-Platt, G, Fermented foods of the world – A dictionary and guide. Butterworth-Heinemann, London. 1987.
[21]	Cardoso, A. P., Mirione, E., Ernesto, M., Massaza, F., Cliff, J., Haque, M. R., Bradbury, J. H, Processing of cassava roots to remove cyanogens. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 18. 451-460. 2005.
[22]	CFS, Coming to terms with terminology: Food security, Nutrition security, Food security and nutrition, Food and nutrition security. Committee on World Food Security (CFS), Thirty-ninth Session, Rome. 15th -20th October 2012.
[23]	Chirimuuta, C and Mapolisa, T, Centering the peripherised systems: Zimbabwean indigenous knowledge systems for food security. Zimbabwe International Journal of Open & Distance Learning. 1(2). .52-56. 2011.
[24]	Cooke, R. D., Twiddy, D. R. and Reilly, P. J, Lactic-acid fermentation as a low-cost means of food preservation in tropical countries. Microbiology Reviews. 46. 369-379. 1987.
[25]	Coursey, D.G, Cassava toxicity and processing. In: Nestel, B. and Mclntyre, R. (eds), Chronic Cassavaa Toxicity, Proceeding of Interdisciplinary Workshop. London, 29-30 February. IDRC-010e: Ottawa, Canada. p.2736. 1973.
[26]	David, O.M. and Famurewa, O, Prophylactic and bio-therapeutic benefits of `ogi’: A lactic acid fermented food. Bulletin of Biological Science, 2(9). 72-77. 2010.
[27]	Dirar, H.A, Sudan’s fermented food heritage. In: Applications of biotechnology to fermented foods: Report of an d Ad-hoc Panel of the Board on Science and Technology for International Development Board on Science and Technology for International Developments of the National Research Council (US) Panel on the Applications of Biotechnology to Fermented Foods. National Academies Press: Washington. 1992. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234677/.
[28]	Dirar, H.A, The Indigenous Fermented Foods of the Sudan: A Study in African Food and Nutrition. CAB International, Wallingford, Oxon, UK.. 1993.
[29]	El-Mahdy, A and L. El-Sebaiy, Effect of germination on the nitrogenous constituents, protein fractions, in vitro digestibility and antinutritional factors of fenugreek seeds (Trigonella foenum graecum L.). Food Chemistry, 8(4). 253-262. 1982.
[30]	Eyong, C.T, Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development in Africa: Case Study on Central Africa. Tribes and Tribals, 1. 121-139. 2007.
[31]	Ezeike, G.O.I, Successful introduction of improved yam storage methods for Nigerian farmers. In: FAO (ed.) Proceeding of the Workshop on the African Experience on Post-harvest Technology Development, Accra (Ghana), 4-8 July 1994. 1995.
[32]	FAO, Expert consultation on planning the development of sundrying techniques in Africa. Proceedings of the Expert Consultation on Planning the Development of Sundrying Techniques in Africa. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 1985.
[33]	FAO, Fermented fruits and vegetables: A global perspective. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.1998.
[34]	FAO, Global food losses and food waste – extent, causes and prevention. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States, Rome. 2011.
[35]	FAO, Handling and Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables by Combined Methods for Rural Areas. FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin 149. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. 2003.
[36]	FAO, The state of food insecurity in the world—Addressing Food Insecurity in Protracted Crises. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States, Rome. 2010.
[37]	FAO. Agriculture, food and nutrition for Africa. A Resource Book for Teachers of Agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. 1997.
[38]	FAO/IFPRI (2008). Impact of Climate Change and Bioenergy on Nutrition. Food and Agriculture Organization/ The International Food Policy Research Institute, Rome. 2003. http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ai799e/ai799e00.HTM (Date accessed 16th April, 2017).
[39]	FAO/WHO, Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme. Codex Alimentarius Commission XII, Supplement 4, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States, Rome.1991.
[40]	Filou, E. 2011. Investing in food processing: Ensuring that Africa can build up indigenous food-processing capacity will reduce food security concerns and help build flourishing local companies. [Online]. Available at: http://www.theafricareport.com/special-reports/sector-reports/agribusiness/5140880-investing-in-food-processing-.html (Accessed Nov. 18th, 2015).
[41]	Ghavidel, R.A. and Prakash, J, The impact of germination and dehulling on nutrients, antinutrients, in vitro iron and calcium bioavailability and in vitro starch and protein digestibility of some legume seeds. LWT - Food Science and Technology. 40 (7). 1292-1299. 2007.
[42]	Gibson, R., and Hotz, C, Dietary diversification/modification strategies to enhance micronutrient content and bioavailability of diets in developing countries. British Journal of Nutrition. 85(Suppl 2). S159-S166. 2001.
[43]	Gibson, R.S, Content and bioavailability of trace elements in vegetarian diets. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 59 (Suppl). 1223S-1232S. 1994.
[44]	Gorjestani, N, Indigenous knowledge for development opportunities and challenges. In: Twarog, S. and Kapoor, P, (Eds), Protecting and promoting traditional knowledge systems, national experiences and international dimensions. United Nations Publication, Symbol No. UNCTAD/DITC/TED/10. 2004.
[45]	Gueye, M.T., Goergen, G., Ndiaye, S., Asiedu, E.A., Wathelet, J-P., Lognay, G. and Seck, D, Efficiency of traditional maize storage and control methods in rural grain granaries: a case study from Senegal. Tropicultura. 31 (2). 39-46. 2013.
[46]	Gustavsson, J, Cederberg, C., Sonesson, U., Otterdijk, R. and Meybeck, A, Global Food Losses and Food Wastes: Extent, Causes and Prevention. [Online] Available at: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/ags/publications/GFL_web.pdf. 2011. (Accessed Nov. 19th, 2015).
[47]	Howlett, W P. Konzo; a new human disease entity. Acta Horticulturae, 1994, 375, 323-329.
[48]	Hsu, D., Leung, H., Finney, P. and Morad, M, Effect of Germination on Nutritive Value and Baking Properties of Dry Peas, Lentils, and Faba Beans. Journal of Food Science. 45 (1). 87-92. 1980.
[49]	Hunter, D., Fanzo, J, Agricultural Biodiversity, Diverse Diets and Improving Nutrition. In: Fanzo, J., Hunter, D., Mikkelsen, J. H., and Langohr, R, (Eds), Diversifying Food and Diets: Using Agricultural Biodiversity to Improve Nutrition and Health; Issues in Agricultural Biodiversity. Earthscan. UK. p1-13. 2013.
[50]	Ibnouf, F.O, “The value of women's indigenous knowledge in food processing and preservation for achieving household food security in rural Sudan. Journal of Food Research. 1(1). 238-253. 2012.
[51]	Iwuoha, C. I. and Eke, O. S, Nigerian indigenous fermented foods: their traditional process operation, inherent problems, improvements and current status. Food Research International. 29. (5-6). 527-540. 1996.
[52]	Jayas, D.S and White, N.D.G, Storage and drying of grain in Canada: low cost approaches. Food Control. 14. 255-261. 2003.
[53]	Kamwendo, G. and Kamwendo, J, Indigenous Knowledge-Systems and Food Security: Some Examples from Malawi. Journal of Human Ecology. 48(1). 97-101. 2014.
[54]	Katz, H.S. and Weaver W.W, Encyclopedia of food culture Volume 1. 2003.
[55]	Khattak A.B., Zeb, AKhan, M., Bibi, N., Ihsanullah, I. and Khattak, M.S, Influence of germination techniques on sprout yield, biosynthesis of ascorbic acid and cooking ability, in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Food Chemistry. 103. 115-120. 2007.
[56]	Kumari, M. and Jain, S, Effect of processing on ingredients and loss of nutrients. Global Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies. 3 (9). 326-347. 2014.
[57]	Luo, Y. and Xie, W, Effect of soaking and sprouting on iron and zinc availability in green and white faba bean (Vicia faba L.). Journal of Food Science and Technology. 51(12). 3970-3976. December 2014.
[58]	Mapara, J, Indigenous knowledge systems in Zimbabwe: Juxtaposing postcolonial theory. The Journal of Pan African Studies, 3. 139-155. 2009.
[59]	Martin-Cabrejas, M., Ariza, N., Esteban, R., Molla, E., Waldron, K and Lopez-Andreu, F, Effect of Germination on the Carbohydrate Composition of the Dietary Fiber of Peas (Pisum sativum L.). Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 51(5). 1254-1259. 2003.
[60]	Masood, T., Shah, H. U. and Zeb, A, Effect of sprouting time on proximate composition and ascorbic acid level of mung bean (Vigna radiate l.) and chickpea (Cicer arietinum l.) seeds. The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences. 24(3). 850-859. 2014.
[61]	Melchias, G, Biodiversity and Conservation. Science Publishers, Inc., Enfield, 2001.
[62]	Mensah, P, Fermentation – the key to food safety assurance in Africa? Food Control. 8(5-6). 271-278. 1997.
[63]	Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland, Development policy guidelines on agriculture and food security. 2010.
[64]	Modi, A.T. Short-term preservation of maize landrace seed and taro propagules using indigenous storage methods, South African Journal of Botany, 70. 16-28. 2004.
[65]	Mostafa, M.M and Rahma, E. H. “Chemical and nutritional change in soybean during germination,” Food Chemistry, 23 (4). 257-275. 1987.
[66]	Motarjemi, Y, Impact of small scale Fermentation technology on food safety in developing countries. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 75(3). 213-229. 2002.
[67]	Mroso, P. V, An Overview of Food Preservation Methods in Practice in Africa. 2003. http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/african_food_preservers/98058/1. (Date accessed 14th May, 2017).
[68]	Mubarak, A.E, Nutritional composition and antinutri-tional factors of mung bean seeds (Phaseolus aureus) as affected by some home traditional processes. Food Chemistry. 89(4). 489-495. 2005.
[69]	Mukiibi, J.K., Agriculture in Uganda. Vol. 2. National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO), Fountain publishers, Kampala. 2001.
[70]	Ngassoum M.B., Tinkeu L. S.N., Ngatanko I., Tapondjou Lognay, L.A., G., Malaisse F. and Hance T, Chemical composition, insecticidal effect and repellent activity of essential oils of three aromatic plants, alone and in combination, towards Sitophilus oryzae L. (Coleoptera:Curculionidae). Natural Product Communications. 2. 12. 2007.
[71]	Nnadi, F.N., Chikaire, J. and Ezudike, K.E, Assessment of Indigenous Knowledge Practices for Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security in Idemili South Local Government Area of Anambra State. Nigeria. Journal of Resources Development and Management. 1. 14-21. 2013.
[72]	Odhiambo, T. and Johan, R.K, You Cannot Fix Indigenous Knowledge. ILEIA (Information Centre for Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture) Newsletter. 1990.
[73]	Olakojo, S.A. and Akinlosotu, T.A, Comparative study of storage methods of maize grains in South Western Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 7. 362-365. 2004.
[74]	Olu, M., Alamu, A.E. and Oluwajoba, S.O, The effect of sprouting on the in-vitro digestibility of maize and cowpea, Journal of Advanced Laboratory Research in Biology. 4(2). 72-76. 2013.
[75]	Olunike, A.A., Storage, preservation and processing of farm produce. Food Science and Quality Management. 27. 28-32. 2014.
[76]	Oniang’o, R., Allotey, J. and Malaba, S.J, (2004). Contribution of indigenous knowledge and practices in food technology to the attainment of food security in Africa. Journal of Food Science. 69 (3). CRH87–CRH91. 2004.
[77]	Onoh, P. A, Peter-Onoh, C.A.,Echetama, J.,Ugwoke, F.O, Ekwugha, E.U. Use of Indigenous Knowledge System by Farmers of Isu Local Government Area of Imo State, Nigeria. International Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development. 15(3). 1317-1321. 2012.
[78]	Onyekwere, O. O, The processing of roots and tubers. In: Onyekwere, O. O., Ngoddy, P. O., Ossai, G. E. A., and Olorunda, A. O, (Eds). Proceedings of the Launching and First Annual Conference of the Nigerian Institute of Food Science and Technology, Lagos, May 5-7, 1977. NIFST: Lagos, Nigeria. 89-93. 1977.
[79]	Osunade, M.A.A, Identification of Crop Soils by Small Farmers of South-Western Nigeria. Environmental Management. 35 (3). 193-203. 1992.
[80]	Osuntokun, B. O, Chronic cyanide intoxication of dietary origin and a degenerative neuropathy in Nigerians. Acta Horticulturae, 375. 311-321. 1994.
[81]	Parawira, W. and Muchuweti, M, An Overview of the Trend and Status of Food Science and Technology Research in Zimbabwe over a Period of 30 Years. Scientific Research and Essays. 3(12). 599-612. 2008.
[82]	Parvez, S., Malik, K.A., Ah Kang, S and Kim, H.Y, “Probiotics and their fermented food products are beneficial for health,” Journal of Applied Microbiology, 100(6). 1171-85. June 2006.
[83]	RANDFORUM, Sourcebook on African Food Technology. Production and Processing Technologies for Commercialization. RANDFORUM (Research and development forum for science-led development in Africa). 1995.
[84]	Sandifolo, V.S, Moyo, C.C. and Bevesi, I. R. M, Evaluation of Effectiveness of storage methods for root of improved sweet potato varieties. In: Akoroda, M.O. and Teri, J.M. (Eds). Food security and crop diversification in SADC countries. Proceedings of Scientific workshop of Southern Africa Root Crops Research network. Lusaka Zambia. 460-464. 1998.
[85]	Sanni, L.O., Adebowale, A.A., Awoyale, W and Fetuga, G.O. Quality of gari (roasted cassava mash) in Lagos State, Nigeria. Nigerian Food Journal. 26. 125-130. 2008.
[86]	Sattar, A., Badshah, A and Aurang, Z, Biosynthesis of ascorbic acid in germinated rapeseed cultivars. Plant Foods Human Nutrition. 47. 63-70. 1995.
[87]	Sefa Dei, G.J, Rethinking The Role of Indigenous Knowledges in the Academy. The Research Network for New Approaches to Lifelong Learning. NALL Working Paper # 58. 2002.
[88]	Sundamari, M. and Ranganathan, T.T, (2003). Indigenous agricultural practices for sustainable farming. Agrobios (India). Jodhpur, India. 2003.
[89]	Tanyanyiwa, V.I. and Chikwanha, M, The role of indigenous knowledge systems in the management of forest resources in Mugabe area, Masvingo, Zimbabwe. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa. 3(3). 132-149. 2011.
[90]	Tchoumbougnang F., Zollo, P.H.A., Boyom, F.F., Nyegue, M.A., Bessière, J.M. and Menut, C., “Aromatic plants of tropical Central Africa. XLVIII. Comparative study of the essential oils of four Hyptis species from Cameroon: H. lanceolata Poit., H. pectinata (L.) Poit., H. spicigera Lam. and H. suaveolens Poit. Flavour Fragrance. 20. 340-343. 2005.
[91]	Thamaga-Chitja, J.M., Hendriks, S.L., Ortmann, G.F. and Green, M, Impact of maize storage on rural household food security in northern KwaZulu- Natal. Journal of Family Ecology and Consumer Science. 32. 8-15. 2004.
[92]	Traoré T, Mouquet C, Icard-Verniere C, Traore AS, Treche S, Changes in nutrient composition, phytate and cyanide contents and α-amylase activity during cereal malting in small production units in Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso). Food Chemistry. 88. 105-114. 2004.
[93]	UN-HLTF, Food and Nutrition Security: Comprehensive Framework for Action. Summary of the Updated Comprehensive Framework for Action (UCFA), United Nations System High Level Task Force on Global Food Security (HLTF); Rome/Genève/New York, 2011.
[94]	UNIFEM (2004) Gender Perspectives in Macro Economics: For Understanding and Eradicating Feminised Poverty in Southern Africa. United Nations Development Fund for Women Harare, UNIFEM. 2004.
[95]	United Nations (2013). World population projected to reach 9.6 billion by 2050. [Online]. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/population/un-report-world-population-projected-to-reach-9-6-billion-by-2050.html (Accessed April. 12th, 2017).
[96]	van Hylckama Vlieg, J. E., Veiga, P., Zhang, C., Derrien, M. and Zhao, L, Impact of microbial transformation of food on health-from fermented foods to fermentation in the gastro-intestinal tract. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 22(2). 211-219. 2011.
[97]	Walingo, M.K, Indigenous Food Processing Methods that Improve Nutrient Bioavailability in Plant-based Diets of the Kenyan Population: the Example of Zinc. In: Robertson, G.L. and Lupien, J.R. (Eds), Using Food Science and Technology to Improve Nutrition and Promote National Development.1-9. 2008.
[98]	Warren, D.M, A Preliminary Analysis of Indigenous soil Classification and Management Systems in Four Ecozones of Nigeria. Nigerian Institute of Socio Economic Research (NISER), Nigeria. 1992.
[99]	WFP, Reducing food losses in sub-Saharan Africa . an action research evaluation trial from Uganda and Burkina Faso. UN World Food Programme, Kampala, Uganda. 2014.
[100]	Woolfe, J, Sweet potato: A versatile and Nutritious Food for all. In: Scott, G., Ferguson, P.I. and Herara, J.E. (Eds). Product Development for Root and Tubers Crops Vol III. Proceedings of Workshop on Processing, Marketing and Utilization of Root and Tuber Crops in Africa, International Institute for Tropical Agriculture Ibadan. 91-102. 1992.
[101]	World Bank, Gender Equality and the Millennium Development Goals. World Bank, Washington, DC. 2003.
[102]	World Bank, Indigenous Knowledge for Developmental Framework for Action. Knowledge Learning Center Africa Region. World Bank , Washington, DC. 1998.
[103]	Xu, M. J., Dong, J.D. and Zhu, M, Effects of germination conditions on ascorbic acid level and yield of soybean sprouts. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 85(6). 943-947. 2005.
[104]	Yagoub, A. E., Suleiman, A. M. E. and Abdel-Gadir, W. S, Effect of fermentation on the Nutritional and Microbiological of Quality of Dough of Different Sorghum Varieties. Journal of Science and Technology. 10(3).109-119. 2009.
[105]	Yakubu, D.A, A study of various local methods of potato storage. Kaduna, Nigeria. Kaduna Polytechnic, National Diploma project (unpublished). 2000.
[106]	Yasmine, M, Impact of small scale fermentation technology on food safety in developing countries. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 75 (3). 213-229. 2000.
[107]	Ziegler, P, Carbohydrate degradation during germination. In Kigel, J. and Galili, G. (Eds), Seed development and germination. Marcel Dekker Inc, New York. 447-474. 1995.
[108]	Zielinski, H., Frias, M., Mariusz, K., Kozlowska, P.H, and Vidal-Valverde, C, Vitamin B1 and B2, dietary fiber and mineral content of cruciferae sprouts. European Food Research and Technology. 221. 78-83. 2005.